View source for Amanita muscaria

{{short description|Species of fungus in the genus Amanita}}
{{use British English|date=March 2013}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = 2006-10-25 Amanita muscaria crop.jpg
| image_caption = Showing three stages as the mushroom expands
| taxon = Amanita muscaria
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lam.]] (1783)
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies and varieties
| subdivision = *''A. muscaria'' subsp. ''flavivolvata'' Singer<ref name="tulloss1"/><!-- defined by Template:Amanita variety --><ref name="Infraspecific Taxa">{{cite web |title=Infraspecific taxa of muscaria |url=http://www.amanitaceae.org/?species%20muscaria |website=amanitaceae.org}}</ref>
*''A. muscaria'' var. ''guessowii'' Veselý<ref name="tulloss2"/><!-- defined by Template:Amanita variety -->
*''A. muscaria'' var. ''inzengae'' Neville & Poumarat<ref name="tulloss3"/><!-- defined by Template:Amanita variety --><ref name="Infraspecific Taxa" />
}}
{{mycomorphbox
| name = ''Amanita muscaria''
| whichGills = free
| capShape = flat
| capShape2 = convex
| hymeniumType=gills
| stipeCharacter=ring and volva
| ecologicalType=mycorrhizal
| sporePrintColor=white
| howEdible=psychoactive
}}

'''''Amanita muscaria''''', commonly known as the '''fly agaric''' or '''fly amanita''', is a [[basidiomycete]] of the genus ''[[Amanita]]''. It is also a [[muscimol mushroom]]. Native throughout the [[temperate]] and [[boreal ecosystem|boreal]] regions of the Northern Hemisphere, ''Amanita muscaria'' has been unintentionally [[introduced species|introduced]] to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a [[symbiont]] with pine and birch plantations, and is now a true [[Cosmopolitan distribution|cosmopolitan]] species. It [[mycorrhiza|associates]] with various [[deciduous]] and [[coniferous]] trees.

Arguably the most iconic [[toadstool]] species, the fly agaric is a large white-[[lamella (mycology)|gilled]], white-spotted, usually red mushroom, and is one of the most recognizable and widely encountered in popular culture.

Although classified as [[poisonous mushroom|poisonous]], reports of human deaths resulting from its ingestion are extremely rare. After [[parboiling]] twice with water draining—which weakens its toxicity and breaks down the mushroom's psychoactive substances—it is eaten in parts of Europe, Asia, and North America. ''Amanita muscaria'' is noted for its [[hallucinogenic]] properties, with its main psychoactive constituents being the compounds [[ibotenic acid]] and [[muscimol]]. The mushroom was used as an intoxicant and [[entheogen]] by the [[peoples of Siberia]], and has a religious significance in these cultures. There has been much speculation on possible traditional use of this mushroom as an intoxicant in other places such as the Middle East, Eurasia, North America, and Scandinavia.

==Taxonomy and naming==
The name of the [[mushroom]] in many European languages is thought to derive from its use as an [[insecticide]] when sprinkled in milk. This practice has been recorded from [[Germanic languages|Germanic-]] <!--(bar England)--> and [[Slavic languages|Slavic-speaking]] parts of Europe, as well as the [[Vosges Mountains|Vosges]] region and pockets elsewhere in France, and Romania.<ref name=Wasson1968>{{cite book |title=Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality |last=Wasson |first=R. Gordon|year=1968|publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovick |location= |isbn=978-0-88316-517-1}}</ref>{{rp|198}} [[Albertus Magnus]] was the first to record it in his work ''De vegetabilibus'' some time before 1256,<ref>{{cite book |title=De vegetabilibus |author=Magnus A.|authorlink=Albertus Magnus |year=1256|chapter=Book&nbsp;II, Chapter 6; p 87 and Book&nbsp;VI, Chapter 7; p 345|publisher= |location= }}</ref> commenting ''vocatur fungus muscarum, eo quod in lacte pulverizatus interficit muscas'', "it is called the fly mushroom because it is powdered in milk to kill flies."<ref name = "Ramsbottom44">Ramsbottom, p 44.</ref>
[[File:Fly Agaric mushroom 05.jpg|thumb|Showing the partial veil under the cap dropping away to form a ring around the stipe]]
The 16th-century Flemish botanist [[Carolus Clusius]] traced the practice of sprinkling it into milk to [[Frankfurt]] in Germany,<ref>{{cite book |title=Rariorum plantarum historia |author=Clusius C.|authorlink=Carolus Clusius |year=1601|chapter=Genus&nbsp;XII of the pernicious mushrooms |publisher= |location= }}</ref> while [[Carl Linnaeus]], the "father of taxonomy", reported it from [[Småland]] in southern Sweden, where he had lived as a child.<ref>{{cite book | author =Linnaeus C.| authorlink=Carl Linnaeus | title=Flora svecica [suecica] exhibens plantas per regnum Sueciae crescentes systematice cum differentiis specierum, synonymis autorum, nominibus incolarum, solo locorum, usu pharmacopæorum| publisher=Laurentii Salvii |location=Stockholm | year=1745| pages=|language=la}}</ref> He described it in volume two of his ''[[Species Plantarum]]'' in 1753, giving it the name ''Agaricus muscarius'',<ref>{{cite book | author=Linnaeus C | title=Species Plantarum| volume=vol. 2| publisher=Laurentii Salvii |location=Stockholm | year=1753|chapter= Tomus&nbsp;II | chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/359193| page=1172|language=la}}</ref> the [[specific name (botany)|specific epithet]] deriving from [[Latin]] ''musca'' meaning "fly".<ref>{{cite book | author = Simpson DP | title = Cassell's Latin dictionary | publisher = Cassell Ltd. | year= 1979 | edition = 5th | location = London | page = 883 | isbn = 978-0-304-52257-6}}</ref> It gained its current name in 1783, when placed in the genus ''[[Amanita]]'' by [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]], a [[sanctioned name|name sanctioned]] in 1821 by the "father of mycology", Swedish naturalist [[Elias Magnus Fries]]. The starting date for all the [[mycota]] had been set by general agreement as January 1, 1821, the date of Fries's work, and so the full name was then ''Amanita muscaria'' (L.:Fr.) [[William Jackson Hooker|Hook]]. The 1987 edition of the [[International Code of Botanical Nomenclature]] changed the rules on the starting date and primary work for names of fungi, and names can now be considered valid as far back as May 1, 1753, the date of publication of Linnaeus's work.<ref>{{cite book | author = Esser K|author2=Lemke PA | title = The Mycota: a comprehensive treatise on fungi as experimental systems for basic and applied research | publisher = Springer | year= 1994| page = 181| isbn = 978-3-540-66493-2}}</ref> Hence, Linnaeus and Lamarck are now taken as the namers of ''Amanita muscaria'' (L.) Lam..

The English mycologist [[John Ramsbottom (mycologist)|John Ramsbottom]] reported that ''Amanita muscaria'' was used for getting rid of bugs in England and Sweden, and ''bug agaric'' was an old alternative name for the species.<ref name = "Ramsbottom44"/> French mycologist [[Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard|Pierre Bulliard]] reported having tried without success to replicate its fly-killing properties in his work ''{{lang|fr|Histoire des plantes vénéneuses et suspectes de la France}}'' (1784), and proposed a new binomial name ''Agaricus pseudo-aurantiacus'' because of this.<ref name=Wasson1968/>{{rp|200}} One compound isolated from the fungus is 1,3-diolein (1,3-Di(cis-9-octadecenoyl)glycerol), which attracts insects.<ref name = "Bnejamin95"/>
It has been hypothesised that the flies intentionally seek out the fly agaric for its intoxicating properties.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Animals and psychedelics: the natural world and the instinct to alter consciousness|first=Giorgio|last=Samorini|year=2002|isbn=978-0-89281-986-7|at=823/1251 (67%) in Kindle edition}}</ref>
An alternative derivation proposes that the term ''fly-'' refers not to insects as such but rather the [[delirium]] resulting from consumption of the fungus. This is based on the medieval belief that flies could enter a person's head and cause mental illness.<ref name = "Michelot03">{{cite journal |author=Michelot D |author2=Melendez-Howell LM. |title=''Amanita muscaria'': chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology |journal=Mycological Research |volume=107 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=131–46 |year=2003 |pmid=12747324 |doi=10.1017/S0953756203007305}}</ref> Several regional names appear to be linked with this connotation, meaning the "mad" or "fool's" version of the highly regarded edible mushroom ''[[Amanita caesarea]]''. Hence there is ''{{lang|ca|oriol foll}}'' "mad oriol" in [[Catalan language|Catalan]], ''mujolo folo'' from [[Toulouse]], ''{{lang|fr|concourlo fouolo}}'' from the [[Aveyron]] department in Southern France, ''{{lang|it|ovolo matto}}'' from [[Trentino]] in Italy. A local dialect name in [[Fribourg]] in Switzerland is ''tsapi de diablhou'', which translates as "Devil's hat".<ref name=Wasson1968/>{{rp|194}}

===Classification===
''Amanita muscaria'' is the [[type species]] of the genus. By extension, it is also the type species of ''Amanita'' [[subgenus]] ''Amanita'', as well as section ''Amanita'' within this subgenus. ''Amanita'' subgenus ''Amanita'' includes all ''Amanita'' with [[inamyloid]] spores. ''Amanita'' [[Section (botany)|section]] ''Amanita'' includes the species with patchy [[universal veil]] remnants, including a [[Volva (mycology)|volva]] that is reduced to a series of concentric rings, and the veil remnants on the [[pileus (mycology)|cap]] to a series of patches or warts. Most species in this group also have a bulbous base.<ref name=singer>{{cite book|author=Singer R.|title= The Agaricales in modern taxonomy|year=1986|edition=4th|isbn=978-3-87429-254-2|publisher=Koeltz Scientific Books|location=Koenigstein, West Germany}}</ref><ref name=jenkins>{{cite book|author=Jenkins DT|title= Amanita of North America|publisher=Mad River Press|year=1986|isbn=978-0-916422-55-4}}</ref> ''Amanita'' section ''Amanita'' consists of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' and its close relatives, including ''[[Amanita pantherina|A.&nbsp;pantherina]]'' (the panther cap), ''[[Amanita gemmata|A.&nbsp;gemmata]]'', ''[[Amanita farinosa|A.&nbsp;farinosa]]'', and ''[[Amanita xanthocephala|A.&nbsp;xanthocephala]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amanitaceae.org/?section%20Amanita|title= ''Amanita'' sect. ''Amanita''|author=Tulloss RE|author2=Yang Z-L|year=2012|series=Studies in the Genus ''Amanita'' Pers. (Agaricales, Fungi) |accessdate=2013-02-21}}</ref> Modern fungal taxonomists have classified ''Amanita muscaria'' and its allies this way based on gross [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]] and spore inamyloidy. Two recent [[molecular phylogenetic]] studies have confirmed this classification as natural.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Moncalvo JM |author2=Drehmel D |author3=Vilgalys R. |title=Variation in modes and rates of evolution in nuclear and mitochondrial ribosomal DNA in the mushroom genus ''Amanita'' (Agaricales, Basidiomycota): phylogenetic implications |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=48–63 |date=July 2000 |pmid=10877939 |doi=10.1006/mpev.2000.0782 |url=http://www.biology.duke.edu/fungi/mycolab/publications/moncalvo2000mpe.pdf |accessdate=2009-02-16 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306082520/http://www.biology.duke.edu/fungi/mycolab/publications/moncalvo2000mpe.pdf |archivedate=6 March 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Drehmel D|author2=Moncalvo JM|author3=Vilgalys R.|title=Molecular phylogeny of ''Amanita'' based on large subunit ribosomal DNA sequences: implications for taxonomy and character evolution|journal=Mycologia|volume=91|issue=4|pages=610–18|year=1999|doi=10.2307/3761246|url=http://www.biology.duke.edu/fungi/mycolab/publications/amanitaMYCOLOGIA.html|type=abstract|accessdate=2009-02-16|jstor=3761246|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081228191743/http://www.biology.duke.edu/fungi/mycolab/publications/amanitaMYCOLOGIA.html|archivedate=2008-12-28}}</ref>

====Controversy====
[[File:Amanita muscaria var. formosa sensu Thiers.jpg|thumb|right|upright|''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''formosa'' is now a synonym for ''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''guessowii''.<ref name=tulloss2 /><!-- defined by Template:Amanita variety -->]]

''Amanita muscaria'' varies considerably in its morphology, and many authorities recognize several subspecies or varieties within the species. In ''The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy'', German mycologist [[Rolf Singer]] listed three subspecies, though without description: ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' ssp. ''muscaria'', ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' ssp. ''americana'', and ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' ssp. ''flavivolvata''.<ref name=singer/>

However, a 2006 molecular phylogenetic study of different regional populations of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' by mycologist József Geml and colleagues found three distinct [[clade]]s within this species representing, roughly, Eurasian, Eurasian "subalpine", and North American populations. Specimens belonging to all three clades have been found in Alaska; this has led to the hypothesis that this was the centre of diversification for this species. The study also looked at four named varieties of the species: var. ''alba'', var. ''flavivolvata'', var. ''formosa'' (including var. ''guessowii''), and var. ''regalis'' from both areas. All four varieties were found within both the Eurasian and North American clades, evidence that these morphological forms are [[Polymorphism (biology)|polymorphisms]] rather than distinct subspecies or varieties.<ref name="Geml06">{{cite journal|author=Geml J |author2=Laursen GA |author3=O'Neill K |author4=Nusbaum HC |author5=Taylor DL |title=Beringian origins and cryptic speciation events in the fly agaric (''Amanita muscaria'') |journal=Molecular Ecology |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=225–39 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16367842 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02799.x |url=http://www.lter.uaf.edu/pdf/1190_Geml_Laursen_2006.pdf |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716142858/http://www.lter.uaf.edu/pdf/1190_Geml_Laursen_2006.pdf |archivedate=2011-07-16 |citeseerx=10.1.1.420.2327 }}</ref> Further molecular study by Geml and colleagues published in 2008 show that these three genetic groups, plus a fourth associated with oak–hickory–pine forest in the southeastern United States and two more on [[Santa Cruz Island]] in California, are delineated from each other enough genetically to be considered separate species. Thus ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' as it stands currently is, evidently, a [[cryptic species complex|species complex]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Geml, J. |author2=Tulloss, R. E. |author3=Laursen, G. A. |year=2008 |title=Evidence for strong inter- and intracontinental phylogeographic structure in ''Amanita muscaria'', a wind-dispersed ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=694–701 |url=http://mercury.bio.uaf.edu/~lee_taylor/pdfs/Geml_Mol-Phylo-Evol_2008.pdf |accessdate=2009-10-28 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2008.04.029 |pmid=18547823 |display-authors=etal |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326023607/http://mercury.bio.uaf.edu/~lee_taylor/pdfs/Geml_Mol-Phylo-Evol_2008.pdf |archivedate=2009-03-26 }}</ref> The complex also includes at least three other closely related taxa that are currently regarded as species:<ref name="tulloss1"/><!-- defined by Template:Amanita variety --> ''[[Amanita breckonii|A.&nbsp;breckonii]]'' is a buff-capped mushroom associated with conifers from the Pacific Northwest,<ref name=tulloss6>{{cite web|url=http://www.amanitaceae.org/?Amanita%20breckonii|title= ''Amanita breckonii'' Ammirati & Thiers|author=Tulloss, R. E.|year=2012|series=Studies in the Genus ''Amanita'' Pers. (Agaricales, Fungi)&nbsp;– ''Tulloss RE, Yang Z-L.'' |accessdate=2013-02-21}}</ref> and the brown-capped ''[[Amanita gioiosa|A.&nbsp;gioiosa]]'' and ''[[Amanita heterochroma|A.&nbsp;heterochroma]]'' from the [[Mediterranean Basin]] and from [[Sardinia]] respectively. Both of these last two are found with ''[[Eucalyptus]]'' and ''[[Cistus]]'' trees, and it is unclear whether they are native or introduced from Australia.<ref name=tulloss7>{{cite web|url=http://www.amanitaceae.org/?Amanita%20gioiosa|title= ''Amanita gioiosa'' S. Curreli ex S. Curreli
|author=Tulloss, R. E.|year=2012|series=Studies in the Genus ''Amanita'' Pers. (Agaricales, Fungi)&nbsp;– ''Tulloss RE, Yang Z-L.'' |accessdate=2013-02-21}}</ref><ref name=tulloss8>{{cite web|url=http://www.amanitaceae.org/?Amanita%20heterochroma|title= ''Amanita heterochroma'' S. Curreli|author=Tulloss, R. E.|year=2012|series=Studies in the Genus ''Amanita'' Pers. (Agaricales, Fungi)&nbsp;– ''Tulloss RE, Yang Z-L.'' |accessdate=2013-02-21}}</ref>

''Amanitaceae.org'' lists four varieties {{as of|2019|May|lc=y}}, but says that they will be segregated into their own taxa "in the near future". They are:<ref name="Infraspecific Taxa"/>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Image
! Reference name
! Common name
! Synonym
! Description
|-
| 
! [[Amanita muscaria var. muscaria|''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''muscaria'']] <ref name=tulloss1>{{cite web|url=http://www.amanitaceae.org/?Amanita+muscaria |title= ''Amanita muscaria'' Singer|author=Tulloss RE|author2=Yang Z-L|year=2012|series=Studies in the Genus ''Amanita'' Pers. (Agaricales, Fungi) |accessdate=2019-05-06}}</ref>
| Euro-Asian fly agaric
| 
| Bright red fly agaric from northern Europe and Asia. Cap might be orange or yellow due to slow development of the purple pigment. Wide cap with white or yellow warts which are removed by rain.
Known to be toxic but used by shamans in northern cultures. Associated predominantly with Birch and diverse conifers in forest.
|-
|-
| [[File:Amanita muscaria 26643.JPG|100px]]
! ''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''flavivolvata''<ref name=tulloss2>{{cite web|url=http://www.amanitaceae.org/?Amanita%20muscaria%20subsp.%20flavivolvata |title= ''Amanita muscaria'' subsp. ''flavivolvata'' Singer|author=Tulloss RE|author2=Yang Z-L|year=2012|series=Studies in the Genus ''Amanita'' Pers. (Agaricales, Fungi) |accessdate=2013-02-21}}</ref>
| American fly agaric
| 
| red, with yellow to yellowish-white warts. It is found from southern Alaska down through the [[Rocky Mountains]], through [[Central America]], all the way to Andean [[Colombia]]. Rodham Tulloss uses this name to describe all "typical" ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' from indigenous New World populations.
|-
| [[File:Flickr - Nicholas T - Forrest H. Dutlinger Natural Area (Revisited) (19).jpg|100px]]
! [[Amanita muscaria var. guessowii|''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''guessowii'']]<ref name=tulloss3>{{cite web|url=http://www.amanitaceae.org/?Amanita+muscaria+var.+guessowii |title= ''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''guessowii'' Veselý|author=Tulloss RE|author2=Yang Z-L|year=2012|series=Studies in the Genus ''Amanita'' Pers. (Agaricales, Fungi) |accessdate=2013-02-21}}</ref>
| American fly agaric (yellow variant)
| [[Amanita muscaria var. formosa|''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''formosa'']]
| has a yellow to orange cap, with the centre more orange or perhaps even reddish orange. It is found most commonly in northeastern North America, from [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] and [[Quebec]] south all the way to the state of [[Tennessee]]. Some authorities (cf. Jenkins) treat these populations as ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' var. ''formosa'', while others (cf. Tulloss) recognise them as a distinct variety.
|-
| 
! ''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''inzengae''<ref>{{cite web|title=Amanita muscaria var. inzengae - Amanitaceae.org - Taxonomy and Morphology of Amanita and Limacella|url=http://www.amanitaceae.org/?Amanita%20muscaria%20var.%20inzengae|website=www.amanitaceae.org|language=en}}</ref>
| Inzenga's fly agaric
| 
| it has a yellow to orange-yellow cap with yellowish warts and stem which may be tan.
|}

==Description==
[[File:Amanita muscaria section 1 WF orig.jpg|thumb|right|Cross section of fruiting body, showing pigment under skin and free gills|alt=A white-fleshed mushroom with a red skin cut in half]]
A large, conspicuous [[mushroom]], ''Amanita muscaria'' is generally common and numerous where it grows, and is often found in groups with [[basidiocarp]]s in all stages of development.
Fly agaric fruiting bodies emerge from the soil looking like white eggs. After emerging from the ground, the cap is covered with numerous small white to yellow pyramid-shaped warts. These are remnants of the [[universal veil]], a membrane that encloses the entire mushroom when it is still very young. Dissecting the mushroom at this stage reveals a characteristic yellowish layer of skin under the veil, which helps identification. As the fungus grows, the red colour appears through the broken veil and the warts become less prominent; they do not change in size, but are reduced relative to the expanding skin area. The cap changes from [[wikt:globose|globose]] to hemispherical, and finally to plate-like and flat in mature specimens.<ref>{{cite book|author=Zeitlmayr L.|year=1976|title=Wild mushrooms: an illustrated handbook|publisher=Hertfordshire, UK: Garden City Press|isbn=978-0-584-10324-3}}</ref> Fully grown, the bright red [[pileus (mycology)|cap]] is usually around {{convert|8|–|20|cm|in|round=0.5|abbr=on}} in diameter, although larger specimens have been found. The red colour may fade after rain and in older mushrooms.

The free [[lamella (mycology)|gills]] are white, as is the [[spore print]]. The oval spores measure 9–13 by 6.5–9&nbsp;[[micrometre|μm]]; they do not turn blue with the application of [[Melzer's reagent|iodine]].<ref name="arora86"/> The [[stipe (mycology)|stipe]] is white, {{convert|5|–|20|cm|in|abbr=on}} high by {{convert|1|–|2|cm|in|round=0.5|abbr=on}} wide, and has the slightly brittle, fibrous texture typical of many large mushrooms. At the base is a [[Volva (mycology)|bulb]] that bears universal veil remnants in the form of two to four distinct rings or ruffs. Between the basal universal veil remnants and gills are remnants of the [[partial veil]] (which covers the gills during development) in the form of a white [[annulus (mycology)|ring]]. It can be quite wide and flaccid with age. There is generally no associated smell other than a mild earthiness.<ref name = "Ultimatemush">{{cite book| author = Jordan P|author2=Wheeler S.| year = 2001 | title = The ultimate mushroom book | publisher = Hermes House | isbn = 978-0-8317-3080-2}}</ref><ref name=Phillips06>{{cite book | author= Phillips R.| year = 2006 | title = Mushrooms | publisher = Pan MacMillan | isbn = 978-0-330-44237-4|page=140}}</ref>

Although very distinctive in appearance, the fly agaric has been mistaken for other yellow to red mushroom species in the Americas, such as ''[[Armillaria]]'' cf. ''mellea'' and the edible ''Amanita basii''—a Mexican species similar to ''[[Amanita caesarea|A.&nbsp;caesarea]]'' of Europe. Poison control centres in the U.S. and Canada have become aware that ''amarill'' (Spanish for 'yellow') is a [[common name]] for the ''A.&nbsp;caesarea''-like species in Mexico.<ref name=tulloss3/><!-- defined by Template:Amanita variety --> ''Amanita caesarea'' is distinguished by its entirely orange to red cap, which lacks the numerous white warty spots of the fly agaric. Furthermore, the stem, gills and ring of ''A. caesarea'' are bright yellow, not white.<ref>{{cite book | author = Haas H.| year = 1969 | title = The young specialist Looks at fungi| publisher = Burke | isbn=978-0-222-79414-7|page=94}}</ref> The volva is a distinct white bag, not broken into scales.<ref>{{cite book | author = Krieger LCC| year = 1967 | title = The mushroom handbook| publisher = Dover| isbn=978-0-486-21861-8}}</ref> In Australia, the introduced fly agaric may be confused with the native vermilion grisette (''[[Amanita xanthocephala]]''), which grows in association with [[eucalypts]]. The latter species generally lacks the white warts of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' and bears no ring.<ref name="fungimapbk">{{cite book |title=Fungi Down Under: the Fungimap guide to Australian fungi|author=Grey P.|year=2005|page=21|publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens |location=Melbourne |isbn=978-0-646-44674-5}}</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
[[File:Amanita muscaria Marriott Falls 1.jpg|left|thumb|''A. muscaria'' in a ''[[Pinus radiata]]'' plantation, near [[Mount Field National Park]], [[Tasmania]]]]

''Amanita muscaria'' is a [[cosmopolitan distribution|cosmopolitan]] mushroom, native to conifer and deciduous woodlands throughout the [[temperate]] and [[boreal ecosystem|boreal]] regions of the Northern Hemisphere,<ref name = "Geml06"/> including higher elevations of warmer latitudes in regions such as [[Hindu Kush]], the Mediterranean and also Central America. A recent molecular study proposes that it had an ancestral origin in the [[Siberia]]n–[[Beringia]]n region in the [[Tertiary]] period, before radiating outwards across Asia, Europe and North America.<ref name = "Geml06"/> The season for fruiting varies in different climates: fruiting occurs in summer and autumn across most of North America, but later in autumn and early winter on the [[Pacific coast]]. This species is often found in similar locations to ''[[Boletus edulis]]'', and may appear in [[fairy ring]]s.<ref name="benjamin305">Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p 305.</ref> Conveyed with pine seedlings, it has been widely transported into the southern hemisphere, including Australia,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Reid DA|year=1980|title=A monograph of the Australian species of ''Amanita'' Persoon ex Hooker (Fungi)|series=Supplementary|journal=Australian Journal of Botany|volume=Series 8|pages=1–96|doi=10.1071/BT8008001|url=https://www.publish.csiro.au/BS/BT8008001|doi-broken-date=2019-08-21}}</ref> New Zealand,<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/0028825X.2001.9512739 |vauthors=Segedin BP, Pennycook SR |title=A nomenclatural checklist of agarics, boletes, and related secotioid and gasteromycetous fungi recorded from New Zealand |journal=New Zealand Journal of Botany |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=285–348 |year=2001}}</ref> South Africa<ref>{{cite journal |author=Reid DA|author2= Eicker A.|title=South African fungi: the genus ''Amanita''|journal=Mycological Research |volume=95 |issue= 1|pages=80–95 |year=1991 |doi=10.1016/S0953-7562(09)81364-6}}</ref> and South America, where it can be found in the southern Brazilian states of [[Paraná (state)|Paraná]]<ref name = "Geml06"/> and [[Rio Grande do Sul]].<ref name="Wartchow 2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wartchow F, Maia LC, de Queirox Cavalcanti MA |title=Taxonomic studies of ''Amanita muscaria'' (L.) Lam (Amanitaceae, Agaricomycetes) and its infraspecific taxa in Brazil |journal=Acta Botanica Brasilica |year=2013 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=31–39 |doi=10.1590/S0102-33062013000100005}} {{open access}}</ref>

[[Mycorrhiza|Ectomycorrhizal]], ''Amanita muscaria'' forms symbiotic relationships with many trees, including [[pine]], [[spruce]], [[fir]], [[birch]], and [[Cedrus|cedar]]. Commonly seen under introduced trees,<ref name=Fuhrer05/> ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' is the fungal equivalent of a [[weed]] in [[New Zealand]], [[Tasmania]] and [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], forming new associations with southern beech (''[[Nothofagus]]'').<ref>{{cite book | author= Hall IR|author2= Stephenson SE|author3= Buchanan PK|author4= Yn W|author5= Cole AL| title = Edible and poisonous mushrooms of the world | year = 2003 | publisher = New Zealand Institute for Crop & Food Research Limited |pages=130–1|isbn = 978-0-478-10835-4}}</ref> The species is also invading a rainforest in Australia, where it may be displacing the native species.<ref name=Fuhrer05>{{cite book|author=Fuhrer BA|title=A field guide to Australian fungi|publisher=Bloomings Books|location=Melbourne|year=2005|page=24|isbn=978-1-876473-51-8}}</ref> It appears to be spreading northwards, with recent reports placing it near [[Port Macquarie, New South Wales|Port Macquarie]] on the [[New South Wales]] north coast.<ref name="fungimapnl">{{cite journal|author=May T.|year=2006|title=News from the Fungimap president|journal=Fungimap Newsletter|volume=29|page=1|url=http://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/?f=16290}}</ref> It was recorded under silver birch (''[[Betula pendula]]'') in [[Manjimup]], Western Australia in 2010.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Robinson R |title=First Record of ''Amanita muscaria'' in Western Australia |journal=Australasian Mycologist |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=4–6 |year=2010 |url=https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/86d4e0_ee6ac9c39b96434197e37aa3afe78454.pdf}}</ref> Although it has apparently not spread to [[eucalypt]]s in Australia, it has been recorded associating with them in Portugal.<ref>{{cite book|author=Keane PJ|author2=Kile GA|author3= Podger FD|title=Diseases and pathogens of eucalypts|publisher=CSIRO Publishing|location=Canberra|year=2000|page=85|isbn=978-0-643-06523-9}}</ref>

==Toxicity==
[[File:Amanita muscaria After Rain.jpg|thumb|upright|Mature. The white spots may wash off with heavy rainfall|alt=a tall red mushroom with a few white spots on the cap]]
''Amanita muscaria'' poisoning has occurred in young children and in people who ingested the mushrooms for a hallucinogenic experience.<ref name = "Michelot03"/><ref name="Benjamin92"/><ref name="Hoegberg">{{cite journal |author1=Hoegberg LC |author2=Larsen L |author3=Sonne L |author4=Bang J |author5=Skanning PG |title=Three cases of ''Amanita muscaria'' ingestion in children: two severe courses [abstract]|journal=Clinical Toxicology|volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=407–8 |year=2008 |doi=10.1080/15563650802071703 |pmid=18568796}}</ref> Occasionally it has been ingested in error, because immature button forms resemble [[puffball]]s.<ref name="benjamin30304">Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', pp 303–04.</ref> The white spots sometimes wash away during heavy rain and the mushrooms then may appear to be the edible ''[[Amanita caesarea|A.&nbsp;caesarea]]''.<ref name="Brvar06"/>

''Amanita muscaria'' contains several biologically active agents, at least one of which, [[muscimol]], is known to be [[psychoactive]]. [[Ibotenic acid]], a neurotoxin, serves as a [[prodrug]] to muscimol, with approximately 10–20% converting to muscimol after ingestion. An active dose in adults is approximately 6&nbsp;mg muscimol or 30 to 60&nbsp;mg ibotenic acid;<ref>{{cite journal |author=Theobald W|author2=Büch O|author3= Kunz HA|author4= Krupp P|author5= Stenger EG|author6= Heimann H.|title=[Pharmacological and experimental psychological studies with 2 components of fly agaric (''Amanita muscaria'')] |language=German |journal=Arzneimittelforschung |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=311–5 |date=March 1968 |pmid=5696006 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name=chilton>{{cite journal |author=Chilton WS|title=The course of an intentional poisoning|journal=MacIlvanea |volume=2 |issue= |page=17 |year=1975 |pmid=}}</ref> this is typically about the amount found in one cap of ''Amanita muscaria''.<ref name="Satora05"/> The amount and ratio of chemical compounds per mushroom varies widely from region to region and season to season, which can further confuse the issue. Spring and summer mushrooms have been reported to contain up to 10 times more ibotenic acid and muscimol than autumn fruitings.<ref name="Benjamin92"/>

A fatal dose has been calculated as 15 caps.<ref name="benjamin309">Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p 309.</ref> Deaths from this fungus ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' have been reported in historical journal articles and newspaper reports,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cagliari GE|title=Mushroom poisoning|journal=Medical Record |volume=52 |issue= |page=298 |year=1897}}</ref><ref name="Buck63"/><ref>{{cite web | title = Vecchi's death said to be due to a deliberate experiment with poisonous mushrooms| work = [[The New York Times]]| date = 19 December 1897 | url = https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1897/12/19/117908892.pdf| accessdate = 2009-02-02 }}</ref> but with modern medical treatment, fatal poisoning from ingesting this mushroom is extremely rare.<ref name="Tupalska-Wilczyńska"/> Many older books list ''Amanita muscaria'' as "deadly", but this is an error that implies the mushroom is more toxic than it is.<ref name="arora894">Arora, ''Mushrooms demystified'', p 894.</ref> The [[North American Mycological Association]] has stated that there were "no reliably documented cases of death from toxins in these mushrooms in the past 100 years".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.namyco.org/toxicology/poison_syndromes.html|title=Mushroom poisoning syndromes|work=North American Mycological Association (NAMA) website|publisher=NAMA|accessdate=2009-03-22| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090404122352/http://www.namyco.org/toxicology/poison_syndromes.html| archivedate= 4 April 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>

The active constituents of this species are water-soluble, and boiling and then discarding the cooking water at least partly detoxifies ''A.&nbsp;muscaria''.<ref name="INTOX"/> Drying may increase potency, as the process facilitates the conversion of ibotenic acid to the more potent muscimol.<ref name="benjamin310">Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p 310.</ref> According to some sources, once detoxified, the mushroom becomes edible.<ref name="RubArora"/><ref>{{cite web |last=Shaw |first=Hank |url=http://honest-food.net/2011/12/24/eating-santas-shroom/ |title=How to Safely Eat Amanita Muscaia |date=2011-12-24 |work=honest-food.net |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304191941/http://honest-food.net/2011/12/24/eating-santas-shroom/ |archivedate=2016-03-04}}</ref>

===Pharmacology===
[[File:Muscimol chemical structure.svg|right|thumb|[[Muscimol]], the principal psychoactive constituent of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'']]
[[File:ibotenic acid2.png|right|thumb|[[Ibotenic acid]], a [[prodrug]] to muscimol found in ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'']]
[[Muscarine]], discovered in 1869,<ref>{{cite book|author=Schmiedeberg O.|author2=Koppe R.|title=Das Muscarin, das giftige Alkaloid des Fliegenpilzes|publisher=F.C.W. Vogel|location=Leipzig|year=1869|oclc=6699630|language=German}}</ref> was long thought to be the active hallucinogenic agent in ''A.&nbsp;muscaria''. Muscarine binds with [[muscarinic acetylcholine receptor]]s leading to the excitation of neurons bearing these receptors. The levels of muscarine in ''Amanita muscaria'' are minute when compared with other poisonous fungi<ref>{{cite journal |author=Eugster, C. H. |title=[Active substances from the toadstool] |language=German |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=55 |issue=7 |pages=305–13 |date=July 1968 |pmid=4878064 |doi=10.1007/BF00600445}}</ref> such as ''[[Inocybe erubescens]]'', the small white ''[[Clitocybe]]'' species ''[[Clitocybe dealbata|C. dealbata]]'' and ''[[Clitocybe rivulosa|C. rivulosa]]''. The level of muscarine in ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' is too low to play a role in the symptoms of poisoning.<ref name="benjamin306">Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p 306.</ref>

The major toxins involved in ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' poisoning are [[muscimol]] (3-hydroxy-5-aminomethyl-1-isoxazole, an [[Unsaturated compound|unsaturated]] cyclic [[hydroxamic acid]]) and the related amino acid [[ibotenic acid]]. Muscimol is the product of the [[decarboxylation]] (usually by drying) of ibotenic acid. Muscimol and ibotenic acid were discovered in the mid-20th century.<ref name="Bowden K"/><ref name="Eugster"/> Researchers in England,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bowden, K. |author2= Drysdale, A. C. |title=A novel constituent of ''Amanita muscaria''|journal=Tetrahedron Lett. |volume=6 |issue= 12|pages=727–8 |date=March 1965 |pmid=14291871 |doi= 10.1016/S0040-4039(01)83973-3|url=}}</ref> Japan,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Takemoto, T. |author2= Nakajima, T.|author3= Yokobe, T. |title=[Structure of ibotenic acid] |language=Japanese |journal=Yakugaku Zasshi |volume=84 |issue= |pages=1232–33 |date=December 1964 |pmid=14266560}}</ref> and Switzerland<ref name="Eugster">{{cite journal |author=Eugster, C. H. |author2= Müller, G. F.|author3= Good, R. |title=[The active ingredients from Amanita muscaria: ibotenic acid and muscazone] |language=German |journal=Tetrahedron Lett. |volume=6 |issue= 23|pages=1813–5 |date=June 1965 |pmid=5891631 |doi=10.1016/S0040-4039(00)90133-3}}</ref> showed that the effects produced were due mainly to ibotenic acid and muscimol, not muscarine.<ref name="Bnejamin95">Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', pp 306–07.</ref><ref name="Bowden K">{{cite journal |author=Bowden, K. |author2= Drysdale, A. C.|author3= Mogey, G. A. |title=Constituents of ''Amanita muscaria'' |journal=Nature |volume=206 |issue=991 |pages=1359–60 |date=June 1965 |pmid=5891274 |doi=10.1038/2061359a0|bibcode= 1965Natur.206.1359B}}</ref> These toxins are not distributed uniformly in the mushroom. Most are detected in the cap of the fruit, a moderate amount in the base, with the smallest amount in the stalk.<ref>Lampe, K.F., 1978. "Pharmacology and therapy of mushroom intoxications". In: Rumack, B.H., Salzman, E. (Eds.), ''Mushroom Poisoning: Diagnosis and Treatment''. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 125–169</ref><ref>{{cite journal| author = Tsunoda, K.| author2 = Inoue, N.| author3 = Aoyagi, Y.| author4 = Sugahara, T. |date = 1993|title=Changes in concentration of ibotenic acid and muscimol in the fruit body of ''Amanita muscaria'' during the reproduction stage: Food hygienic studies of toxigenic basidiomycotina: II.|journal =J Food Hyg Soc Jpn |volume=34|issue=1|pages=18–24|doi=10.3358/shokueishi.34.18|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/shokueishi1960/34/1/34_1_18/_pdf|format=pdf}}</ref> Quite rapidly, between 20 and 90 minutes after ingestion, a substantial fraction of ibotenic acid is excreted unmetabolised in the urine of the consumer. Almost no muscimol is excreted when pure ibotenic acid is eaten, but muscimol is detectable in the urine after eating ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'', which contains both ibotenic acid and muscimol.<ref name=chilton/>

Ibotenic acid and muscimol are structurally related to each other and to two major [[neurotransmitter]]s of the central nervous system: [[glutamic acid]] and [[GABA]] respectively. Ibotenic acid and muscimol act like these neurotransmitters, muscimol being a potent [[GABA A receptor|GABA<sub>A</sub>]] [[agonist]], while ibotenic acid is an agonist of [[NMDA receptor|NMDA glutamate receptors]] and certain [[metabotropic glutamate receptor]]s<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jørgensen, C. G. |author2= Bräuner-Osborne, H.|author3=Nielsen, B. |title=Novel 5-substituted 1-pyrazolol analogues of ibotenic acid: synthesis and pharmacology at glutamate receptors |journal=Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=3524–38 |date=May 2007 |pmid=17376693 |doi=10.1016/j.bmc.2007.02.047 |url=|display-authors=etal}}</ref> which are involved in the control of neuronal activity. It is these interactions which are thought to cause the psychoactive effects found in intoxication.<ref name = "Michelot03"/><ref name="Satora05">{{cite journal |author=Satora, L. |author2=Pach, D.|author3= Butryn, B.|author4= Hydzik, P.|author5= Balicka-Slusarczyk, B. |title=Fly agaric (''Amanita muscaria'') poisoning, case report and review |journal=Toxicon |volume=45 |issue=7 |pages=941–3 |date=June 2005 |pmid=15904689 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.01.005 |url=}}</ref>

[[Muscazone]] is another compound that has more recently been isolated from European specimens of the fly agaric. It is a product of the breakdown of ibotenic acid by [[ultra-violet radiation]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Fritz, H.|author2= Gagneux, A. R.|author3= Zbinden, R.|author4= Eugster, C. H.|year=1965|title=The structure of muscazone.|journal=Tetrahedron Letters|volume=6|issue=25|pages=2075–76|doi=10.1016/S0040-4039(00)90156-4}}</ref> Muscazone is of minor [[Biological activity|pharmacological activity]] compared with the other agents.<ref name = "Michelot03"/> ''Amanita muscaria'' and related species are known as effective [[bioaccumulation|bioaccumulators]] of [[vanadium]]; some species concentrate vanadium to levels of up to 400 times those typically found in plants.<ref name="Garner"/> Vanadium is present in fruit-bodies as an [[Organometallic chemistry#Organometallic compounds|organometallic]] compound called [[amavadine]].<ref name="Garner">{{cite journal |author1=Garner, C. D. |author2=Armstrong, E. M. |author3=Berry, R. E. |title=Investigations of Amavadin |journal=Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry |volume=80 |issue=1–2 |pages=17–20 |date=May 2000 |pmid=10885458 |doi=10.1016/S0162-0134(00)00034-9 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> The biological importance of the accumulation process is unknown.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hubregtse, T. |author2=Neeleman, E.|author3= Maschmeyer, T.|author4= Sheldon, R. A.|author5= Hanefeld, U.|author6= Arends, I. W. |title=The first enantioselective synthesis of the amavadin ligand and its complexation to vanadium |journal=Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry |volume=99 |issue=5 |pages=1264–7 |date=May 2005 |pmid=15833352 |doi=10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2005.02.004 |url=}}</ref>

===Symptoms===
Fly agarics are known for the unpredictability of their effects. Depending on habitat and the amount ingested per body weight, effects can range from mild [[nausea]] and twitching to drowsiness, [[cholinergic crisis]]-like effects (low [[blood pressure]], [[sweat]]ing and [[saliva]]tion), auditory and visual distortions, mood changes, [[Euphoria (emotion)|euphoria]], relaxation, [[ataxia]], and [[Vertigo (medical)|loss of equilibrium]] like with [[Tetanus]].<ref name="Benjamin92">{{cite journal|author=Benjamin DR|year=1992|title=Mushroom poisoning in infants and children: the ''Amanita pantherina''/''muscaria'' group|journal=Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology|volume=30|issue=1|pages=13–22|doi=10.3109/15563659208994442|pmid=1347320}}</ref><ref name="Hoegberg"/><ref name="Satora05"/><ref name="Buck63">{{cite journal |author=Buck, R. W. |title=Toxicity of ''Amanita muscaria'' |journal=JAMA |volume=185 |issue= 8|pages=663–4 |date=August 1963 |pmid=14016551 |doi=10.1001/jama.1963.03060080059020}}</ref>

In cases of serious poisoning the mushroom causes [[delirium]], somewhat similar in effect to [[anticholinergic]] poisoning (such as that caused by ''[[Datura stramonium]]''), characterised by bouts of marked [[Psychomotor agitation|agitation]] with confusion, hallucinations, and irritability followed by periods of [[central nervous system]] depression. [[Seizures]] and [[coma]] may also occur in severe poisonings.<ref name="Hoegberg"/><ref name="Satora05"/> Symptoms typically appear after around 30 to 90 minutes and peak within three hours, but certain effects can last for several days.<ref name="Brvar06">{{cite journal |author=Brvar, M. |author2= Mozina, M.|author3= Bunc, M. |title=Prolonged psychosis after ''Amanita muscaria'' ingestion |journal=Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. |volume=118 |issue=9–10 |pages=294–7 |date=May 2006 |pmid=16810488 |doi=10.1007/s00508-006-0581-6}}</ref><ref name=chilton/> In the majority of cases recovery is complete within 12 to 24&nbsp;hours.<ref name="INTOX">{{cite web | author = Piqueras, J.| title = Amanita muscaria, Amanita pantherina and others | website = | publisher = IPCS INTOX Databank | date = 10 January 1990 | url = http://www.intox.org/databank/documents/fungi/aminita/pimg026.htm | accessdate = 2008-12-08}}</ref> The effect is highly variable between individuals, with similar doses potentially causing quite different reactions.<ref name="Benjamin92"/><ref name="chilton" /><ref name="Ott76">{{cite book|author=Ott, J. |title=Hallucinogenic Plants of North America|publisher=Wingbow Press|location=Berkeley, CA|year=1976|isbn=978-0-914728-15-3}}</ref> Some people suffering intoxication have exhibited headaches up to ten hours afterwards.<ref name=chilton/> [[Retrograde amnesia]] and [[somnolence]] can result following recovery.<ref name="Satora05"/>

===Treatment===
Medical attention should be sought in cases of suspected poisoning. If the delay between ingestion and treatment is less than four hours, [[activated charcoal]] is given. [[Gastric lavage]] can be considered if the patient presents within one hour of ingestion.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Vale, J. A. |author2= Kulig, K.|author3= American Academy of Clinical Toxicology|others= European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists | title=Position paper: gastric lavage | journal=Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology | year=2004 | pages=933–43 | volume=42 | issue=7 | pmid=15641639 | doi=10.1081/CLT-200045006}}</ref> Inducing vomiting with [[syrup of ipecac]] is no longer recommended in any poisoning situation.<ref>{{cite journal | author=American Academy Of Clinical Toxico | author2=European Association Of Poisons Cen | title=Position paper: Ipecac syrup | journal=Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology | year=2004 | pages=133–43 | volume=42 | issue=2 | pmid=15214617 | doi=10.1081/CLT-120037421}}</ref>

There is no antidote, and supportive care is the mainstay of further treatment for intoxication. Though sometimes referred to as a [[deliriant]] and while [[muscarine]] was first isolated from ''A. muscaria'' and as such is its namesake, [[muscimol]] does not have action, either as an [[agonist]] or [[Receptor antagonist|antagonist]], at the [[muscarinic acetylcholine receptor]] site, and therefore [[atropine]] or [[physostigmine]] as an antidote is not recommended.<ref>{{cite book | author = Dart, R. C.|title = Medical toxicology | publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | year = 2004 | location = Philadelphia, PA | pages = 1719–35 | isbn = 978-0-7817-2845-4}}</ref> If a patient is [[Delirium|delirious]] or agitated, this can usually be treated by reassurance and, if necessary, physical restraints. A [[benzodiazepine]] such as [[diazepam]] or [[lorazepam]] can be used to control combativeness, agitation, muscular overactivity, and seizures.<ref name="Benjamin92"/> Only small doses should be used, as they may worsen the [[Respiratory depression|respiratory depressant]] effects of muscimol.<ref>{{cite book | author = Brent, J.|author2= Wallace, K. L.|author3= Burkhart, K. K.|author4= Phillips, S. D.|author5= Donovan, J. W. | title = Critical care toxicology: diagnosis and management of the critically poisoned patient | publisher = Elsevier Mosby | year = 2005 | location = Philadelphia, PA | pages = 1263–75 | isbn = 978-0-8151-4387-1}}</ref> Recurrent vomiting is rare, but if present may lead to fluid and electrolyte imbalances; intravenous rehydration or electrolyte replacement may be required.<ref name="Satora05"/><ref name="benjamin313">Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p 313.</ref> Serious cases may develop loss of [[consciousness]] or [[coma]], and may need [[intubation]] and [[artificial ventilation]].<ref name="Hoegberg"/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Bosman, C. K.|author2= Berman, L.|author3= Isaacson, M.|author4= Wolfowitz, B.|author5= Parkes, J. |title=Mushroom poisoning caused by ''Amanita pantherina''. Report of 4 cases |journal=South African Medical Journal |volume=39 |issue=39 |pages=983–86 |date=October 1965 |pmid=5892794}}</ref> [[Hemodialysis]] can remove the toxins, although this intervention is generally considered unnecessary.<ref name="INTOX"/> With modern medical treatment the prognosis is typically good following supportive treatment.<ref name="Tupalska-Wilczyńska">{{cite journal |author=Tupalska-Wilczyńska, K. |author2=Ignatowicz, R.|author3= Poziemski, A.|author4= Wójcik, H.|author5= Wilczyński, G. |title=Zatrucia muchomorami plamistym i czerwonym--patogeneza, objawy, leczenie |trans-title=Poisoning with spotted and red mushrooms—pathogenesis, symptoms, treatment |language=Polish |journal=Wiad. Lek. |volume=49 |issue=1–6 |pages=66–71 |year=1996 |pmid=9173659}}</ref><ref name="INTOX"/>

===Psychoactive use===
[[File:Mushroom in the Hills of Adelaide.jpg|alt=Amanita muscaria in Mount Lofty, South Australia|thumb|Photographed in Mount Lofty Botanic Gardens, Adelaide Hills, South Australia]]

The wide range of [[Psychoactive drug|psychoactive]] effects have been variously described as [[depressant]], [[sedative]]-[[hypnotic]], [[Psychedelic drug|psychedelic]], [[dissociative]], or [[deliriant]]; [[Paradoxical reaction|paradoxical effect]]s such as [[Stimulant|stimulation]] may occur however. Perceptual phenomena such as [[synesthesia]], [[macropsia]], and [[micropsia]] may occur; the latter two effects may occur simultaneously and or alternatingly as part of [[Alice in Wonderland syndrome]], collectively known as dysmetropsia, along with related distortions [[pelopsia]] and [[teleopsia]]. Some users report [[lucid dream]]ing under the influence of its hypnotic effects. Unlike ''[[Psilocybe cubensis]]'', ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' cannot be commercially [[Fungiculture|cultivated]], due to its [[mycorrhiza]]l relationship with the roots of [[pine]] trees. However, following the outlawing of [[psilocybin mushroom]]s in the United Kingdom in 2006, the sale of the still legal ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' began increasing.<ref name=EMC2006>{{cite book|title=Hallucinogenic mushrooms an emerging trend case study.|date=2006|publisher=European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction|location=Lisbon|isbn=978-92-9168-249-2|url=http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_31215_EN_TP_Hallucinogenic_mushrooms.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|17}}

Professor [[Marija Gimbutienė]], a renowned Lithuanian historian, reported to [[R. Gordon Wasson]] on the use of this mushroom in Lithuania. In remote areas of [[Lithuania]] ''Amanita muscaria'' has been consumed at [[wedding feast]]s, in which mushrooms were mixed with [[vodka]]. The professor also reported that the Lithuanians used to export ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' to the [[Lapps]] in the Far North for use in [[shamanic]] rituals. The Lithuanian festivities are the only report that Wasson received of ingestion of fly agaric for religious use in Eastern Europe.<ref name=Wasson1980>{{cite book |title=The Wondrous Mushroom: Mycolatry in Mesoamerica |last=Wasson |first=R. Gordon|year=1980|publisher=McGraw-Hill |location= |isbn=978-0-07-068443-0}}</ref>{{rp|43–44}}

===Siberia===
[[File:Amanita muscaria. Eastern Siberia.jpg|thumb|Amanita muscaria. Eastern Siberia]]
''Amanita muscaria'' was widely used as an [[entheogen]] by many of the [[indigenous peoples of Siberia]]. Its use was known among almost all of the [[Uralic languages|Uralic]]-speaking peoples of western Siberia and the [[Paleosiberian]]-speaking peoples of the [[Russian Far East]]. There are only isolated reports of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' use among the [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusic]] and [[Turkic peoples]] of central Siberia and it is believed that on the whole entheogenic use of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' was not practised by these peoples.<ref name="nyberg1">{{cite journal|author=Nyberg, H.|year=1992|title=Religious use of hallucinogenic fungi: A comparison between Siberian and Mesoamerican Cultures|journal=Karstenia |volume=32|issue=71–80|pages=71–80|url=http://www.funga.fi/Karstenia/Karstenia%2032-2%201992-4.pdf|doi=10.29203/ka.1992.294}}</ref> In western Siberia, the use of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' was restricted to shamans, who used it as an alternative method of achieving a [[trance]] state. (Normally, Siberian shamans achieve trance by prolonged drumming and dancing.) In eastern Siberia, ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' was used by both shamans and laypeople alike, and was used recreationally as well as religiously.<ref name="nyberg1" /> In eastern Siberia, the [[shamanism|shaman]] would take the mushrooms, and others would drink his urine.<ref name=Wasson1968/>{{rp|161}} This urine, still containing psychoactive elements, may be more potent than the ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' mushrooms with fewer negative effects such as sweating and twitching, suggesting that the initial user may act as a screening filter for other components in the mushroom.<ref name="Diaz">{{cite book|author=Diaz, J.|title=How Drugs Influence Behavior: A Neurobehavioral Approach|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=Upper Saddle River, N.J.|year=1996|isbn=978-0-02-328764-0 }}</ref>

The [[Koryaks|Koryak]] of eastern Siberia have a story about the fly agaric (''wapaq'') which enabled Big Raven to carry a whale to its home. In the story, the deity ''Vahiyinin'' ("Existence") spat onto earth, and his [[spittle]] became the ''wapaq'', and his saliva becomes the warts. After experiencing the power of the ''wapaq'', Raven was so exhilarated that he told it to grow forever on earth so his children, the people, could learn from it.<ref name = "Ramsbottom45">Ramsbottom, p 45.</ref> Among the [[Koryaks]], one report said that the poor would consume the urine of the wealthy, who could afford to buy the mushrooms.<ref name=Wasson1968/>{{rp|234–35}}

===Other reports of use===
The Finnish historian [[T. I. Itkonen]] mentions that ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' was once used among the [[Sami people]]: sorcerers in [[Inari, Finland|Inari]] would consume fly agarics with seven spots.<ref name=Wasson1968/>{{rp|279}} In 1979, Said Gholam Mochtar and [[Hartmut Geerken]] published an article in which they claim to have discovered a tradition of medicinal and recreational use of this mushroom among a [[Parachi]]-speaking group in [[Afghanistan]].<ref>"Several Shutulis asserted that Amanita-extract was administered orally as a medicine for treatment of psychotic conditions, as well as externally as a therapy for localised frostbite." {{cite journal|url=http://www.erowid.org/plants/amanitas/references/journal/1979_mochtar_afghanistan1.shtml|title=The Hallucinogens Muscarine and Ibotenic Acid in the Middle Hindu Kush: A contribution on traditional medicinal mycology in Afghanistan|author1=Mochtar, S. G. |author2= Geerken, H.|translator=P. G. Werner|year=1979|journal=Afghanistan Journal|volume=6|pages=62–65|language=German|accessdate=2009-02-23| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090217163249/http://www.erowid.org/plants/amanitas/references/journal/1979_mochtar_afghanistan1.shtml| archivedate= 17 February 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref> There are also unconfirmed reports of religious use of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' among two Subarctic [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] tribes. [[Ojibwa]] ethnobotanist [[Keewaydinoquay Peschel]] reported its use among her people, where it was known as the ''miskwedo''.<ref>{{cite book|author =Peschel, Keewaydinoquay|authorlink=Keewaydinoquay Peschel|title= Puhpohwee for the people: a narrative account of some uses of fungi among the Ahnishinaubeg|publisher=Botanical Museum of Harvard University|location=Cambridge, MA|year=1978|isbn=978-1-879528-18-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Navet, E. |year=1988 |title=Les Ojibway et l'Amanite tue-mouche (''Amanita muscaria''). Pour une éthnomycologie des Indiens d'Amérique du Nord |journal=Journal de la Société des Américanistes |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=163–80 |doi=10.3406/jsa.1988.1334 |language=fr |url=http://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/jsa_0037-9174_1988_num_74_1_1334.pdf }}{{Dead link|date=September 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> This information was enthusiastically received by Wasson, although evidence from other sources was lacking.<ref>Letcher, p 149.</ref> There is also one account of a Euro-American who claims to have been initiated into traditional [[Tlicho]] use of ''Amanita muscaria''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Larsen, S.|title=The Shaman's Doorway|publisher=Station Hill Press|location=New York, NY|year=1976|isbn=978-0-89281-672-9}}</ref>

===Vikings===
The notion that [[Viking]]s used ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' to produce their [[berserker]] rages was first suggested by the Swedish professor Samuel Ödmann in 1784.<ref>{{sv icon}} Ödmann S. (1784) Försök at utur Naturens Historia förklara de nordiska gamla Kämpars Berserka-gang (An attempt to Explain the Berserk-raging of Ancient Nordic Warriors through Natural History). ''Kongliga Vetenskaps Academiens nya Handlingar'' '''5''': 240–247 (In: Wasson, 1968)</ref> Ödmann based his theories on reports about the use of fly agaric among [[Shamanism in Siberia|Siberian shamans]]. The notion has become widespread since the 19th century, but no contemporary sources mention this use or anything similar in their description of berserkers. Muscimol is generally a mild relaxant, but it can create a range of different reactions within a group of people.<ref name=Hoff>{{cite book|last=Hoffer|first=A.|author2=Osmond, H.|authorlink=Abram Hoffer|title=The Hallucinogens|publisher=Academic Press|year=1967|pages=443–54|isbn=978-0-12-351850-7}}</ref> It is possible that it could make a person angry, or cause them to be "very jolly or sad, jump about, dance, sing or give way to great fright".<ref name=Hoff/> Comparative analysis of symptoms have, however, since shown ''[[Hyoscyamus niger]]'' to be a better fit to the state that characterises the berserker rage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fatur|first=Karsten|date=2019-11-15|title=Sagas of the Solanaceae: Speculative ethnobotanical perspectives on the Norse berserkers|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378874119322640|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=244|pages=112151|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2019.112151|issn=0378-8741}}</ref>

==Fly trap==
''Amanita muscaria'' is traditionally used for catching flies possibly due to its content of [[ibotenic acid]] and [[muscimol]].
Recently, an analysis of nine different methods for preparing ''A. muscaria'' for catching flies in [[Slovenia]] have shown that the release of [[ibotenic acid]] and [[muscimol]] did not depend on the solvent (milk or water) and that thermal and mechanical processing led to faster extraction of [[ibotenic acid]] and [[muscimol]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lumpert  | year = 2016 | title = Catching flies with Amanita muscaria: traditional recipes from Slovenia and their efficacy in the extraction of ibotenic acid | doi = 10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.009 | journal = Journal of Ethnopharmacology | volume = 187 | issue = | pages = 1–8 | pmid=27063872}}</ref>

==In religion==

===Soma===
{{See also|Botanical identity of Soma-Haoma}}

In 1968, [[R. Gordon Wasson]] proposed that ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' was the ''[[Soma (drink)|soma]]'' talked about in the [[Rigveda]] of India,<ref name=Wasson1968/>{{rp|10}} a claim which received widespread publicity and popular support at the time.<ref name=Letcher145>Letcher, p 145.</ref> He noted that descriptions of ''Soma'' omitted any description of roots, stems or seeds, which suggested a mushroom,<ref name=Wasson1968/>{{rp|18}} and used the adjective ''hári'' "dazzling" or "flaming" which the author interprets as meaning red.<ref name=Wasson1968/>{{rp|36–37}} One line described men urinating ''Soma''; this recalled the practice of recycling urine in Siberia. Soma is mentioned as coming "from the mountains", which Wasson interpreted as the mushroom having been brought in with the Aryan invaders from the north.<ref name=Wasson1968/>{{rp|22–24}} Indian scholars Santosh Kumar Dash and Sachinanda Padhy pointed out that both eating of mushrooms and drinking of urine were proscribed, using as a source the ''[[Manusmṛti]]''.<ref name=Letcher146>Letcher, p 146.</ref>
In 1971, Vedic scholar John Brough from Cambridge University rejected Wasson's theory and noted that the language was too vague to determine a description of Soma.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1017/S0041977X0012957X|author=Brough, J.|title=Soma and ''Amanita muscaria''|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (BSOAS)|volume=34|issue=2|year=1971|pages=331–62}}</ref> In his 1976 survey, ''Hallucinogens and Culture'', anthropologist Peter T. Furst evaluated the evidence for and against the identification of the fly agaric mushroom as the Vedic Soma, concluding cautiously in its favour.<ref name="Furst 1976 96–108">{{cite book |title=Hallucinogens and Culture |last=Furst |first=Peter T.|year=1976|publisher=Chandler & Sharp |location= |isbn=978-0-88316-517-1 |pages=96–108}}</ref>

===Christianity===
[[File:Aquileia mushrooms.jpg|thumb|[[Mosaic]] of red mushrooms, found in the Christian [[Basilica]] of [[Aquileia]] in northern Italy, dating to before 330 AD]]
Philologist, archeologist, and [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] scholar [[John Marco Allegro]] postulated that early Christian [[theology]] was derived from a fertility cult revolving around the [[entheogen]]ic consumption of ''A. muscaria'' in his 1970 book ''[[The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross]]'',<ref>
{{cite book | author = Allegro, J. | year = 1970 | title = The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross: A Study of the Nature and Origins of Roman Theology within the Fertility Cults of the Ancient Near East | publisher = Hodder & Stoughton | location = London| isbn = 978-0-340-12875-6}}</ref> but his theory has found little support by scholars outside the field of [[ethnomycology]]. The book was roundly criticized by academics and theologians, including [[Godfrey Rolles Driver|Sir Godfrey Driver]], Emeritus Professor of Semitic Philology at [[Oxford University]], and [[Henry Chadwick (theologian)|Henry Chadwick]], the Dean of [[Christ Church, Oxford]].<ref name="Letcher, p 160">Letcher, p 160.</ref> Christian author John C. King wrote a detailed rebuttal of Allegro's theory in the 1970 book ''A Christian View of the Mushroom Myth''; he notes that neither fly agarics nor their host trees are found in the [[Middle East]], even though cedars and pines are found there, and highlights the tenuous nature of the links between biblical and Sumerian names coined by Allegro. He concludes that if the theory were true, the use of the mushroom must have been "the best kept secret in the world" as it was so well concealed for two thousand years.<ref>{{cite book|author=King, J. C. |title=A Christian View of the Mushroom Myth|publisher=Hodder & Stoughton|location=London|year=1970|isbn=978-0-340-12597-7}}</ref><ref>Letcher, p. 161.</ref>

==Culinary use==
The toxins in ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' are water-soluble. When cut in pieces and parboiled twice during 10-15 minutes in plentiful of fresh water until thoroughly cooked, it seems to be detoxified.<ref name="RubArora">{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s12231-008-9040-9|author=Rubel, W.|author2=Arora, D.|year=2008|title=A Study of Cultural Bias in Field Guide Determinations of Mushroom Edibility Using the Iconic Mushroom, ''Amanita Muscaria,''as an Example|journal=Economic Botany|volume=62|issue=3|pages=223–43 | url = http://www.davidarora.com/uploads/muscaria_revised.pdf }}</ref> Although its consumption as a food has never been widespread,<ref>Viess, Debbie. [http://bayareamushrooms.org/education/further_reflections_amanita_muscaria.html "Further Reflections on Amanita muscaria as an Edible Species"] </ref> the consumption of detoxified ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' has been practiced in some parts of Europe (notably by Russian settlers in Siberia) since at least the 19th century, and likely earlier. The German physician and naturalist [[Georg Heinrich von Langsdorff]] wrote the earliest published account on how to detoxify this mushroom in 1823. In the late 19th century, the French physician [[Félix Archimède Pouchet]] was a populariser and advocate of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' consumption, comparing it to [[manioc]], an important food source in tropical South America that must be detoxified before consumption.<ref name="RubArora"/>

Use of this mushroom as a food source also seems to have existed in North America. A classic description of this use of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' by an [[African-American]] mushroom seller in Washington, D.C., in the late 19th century is described by American botanist [[Frederick Vernon Coville]]. In this case, the mushroom, after parboiling, and soaking in vinegar, is made into a mushroom sauce for steak.<ref>Coville, F. V. 1898. ''Observations on Recent Cases of Mushroom Poisoning in the District of Columbia''. United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Botany. U.S. Government Printing office, Washington, D.C.</ref> It is also consumed as a food in parts of Japan. The most well-known current use as an edible mushroom is in [[Nagano Prefecture]], Japan. There, it is primarily salted and pickled.<ref>{{Cite thesis|author = Phipps, A. G.|author2= Bennett, B.C.|author3= Downum, K. R.| title = Japanese use of Beni-tengu-dake (''Amanita muscaria'') and the efficacy of traditional detoxification methods|publisher = Florida International University, Miami, Florida|year=2000}}</ref>

A 2008 paper by food historian William Rubel and mycologist [[David Arora]] gives a history of consumption of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' as a food and describes detoxification methods. They advocate that ''Amanita muscaria'' be described in field guides as an edible mushroom, though accompanied by a description on how to detoxify it. The authors state that the widespread descriptions in field guides of this mushroom as poisonous is a reflection of [[cultural bias]], as several other popular edible species, notably [[morels]], are toxic unless properly cooked.<ref name="RubArora"/>

==Cultural depictions==
[[File:Ruebezahl (Moritz von Schwind).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Moritz von Schwind]]'s 1851 painting of ''[[Rübezahl]]'' features fly agarics.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.mykoweb.com/art-registry/1750-1850.html|title= Art Registry: 1750–1850| work=Mykoweb|accessdate= 2009-02-26| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090202145757/http://mykoweb.com/art-registry/1750-1850.html| archivedate= 2 February 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>]]

The red-and-white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture.<ref name="arora86"/> Garden ornaments and children's picture books depicting [[gnome]]s and [[fairy|fairies]], such as the [[Smurf]]s, often show fly agarics used as seats, or homes.<ref name="arora86">{{cite book |author=Arora, D. |year=1986 |title=Mushrooms demystified: a comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi |edition=2nd |location=Berkeley |publisher=Ten Speed Press |isbn=978-0-89815-169-5 |pages=282–83 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/mushroomsdemysti00aror_0 }}</ref><ref name="benjamin295">Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p 295.</ref> Fly agarics have been featured in paintings since the [[Renaissance]],<ref name="urlMykoWeb -- Art Registry">{{cite web |url=http://www.mykoweb.com/art-registry/index.html |title=The Registry of Mushrooms in Works of Art |work=Mykoweb |accessdate=2009-02-16| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090201132515/http://mykoweb.com/art-registry/index.html| archivedate= 1 February 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref> albeit in a subtle manner. In the [[Victorian era]] they became more visible, becoming the main topic of some [[fairy painting]]s.<ref name="urlMushrooms in Victorian Fairy Paintings, by Elio Schachter">{{cite journal |url=http://www.mushroomthejournal.com/bestof/VicFP.html |title=Mushrooms in Victorian Fairy Paintings, by Elio Schachter |journal=Mushroom, the Journal of Wild Mushrooming |accessdate=2009-02-16 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115092517/http://www.mushroomthejournal.com/bestof/VicFP.html |archivedate=15 January 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Two of the most famous uses of the mushroom are in the video game series ''[[Mushroom (Mario)|Super Mario Bros.]]'' (specifically two of the power-up items and the platforms in several stages),<ref>{{cite journal |author=Li, C.|author2=Oberlies, N. H. |date=December 2005 |title=The most widely recognized mushroom: chemistry of the genus ''Amanita'' |journal=Life Sciences |volume=78 |issue=5 |pages=532–38 |pmid=16203016 |doi=10.1016/j.lfs.2005.09.003|url= http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/N_Oberlies_Most_2005.pdf}}<!--http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/N_Oberlies_Most_2005.pdf--></ref> and the dancing mushroom sequence in the 1940 Disney film ''[[Fantasia (1940 film)|Fantasia]]''.<ref name = "Ramsbottom43">Ramsbottom, p 43.</ref>

===Literature===
[[File:Children-play-on-alice-in-wonderland-sculpture-central-park-new-york-3.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jose de Creeft]]'s sculpture ''Alice in Wonderland'' in Eastern [[Central Park]], New York. Alice sits on a mushroom, inviting children to climb up and join her. The mushroom in the sculpture is not a faithfully reproduced ''Amanita muscaria''; the reference within [[Lewis Carroll]]'s original literary work upon which the sculpture is based is often discussed.<ref name="Letcher, p 126">Letcher, p 126.</ref><ref>''Sacred Weeds: Fly Agaric'', [[BBC]] documentary presented by [[Andrew Sherratt|Dr Andrew Sherratt]], The Reader in European Pre-History at the University of Oxford (prior to his resignation, formerly Professor of Archaeology, University of Oxford). Documentary released 1998-08-10. Relevant material about 06:30–07:00 minutes. Transcription: ''I then moved on to the appearance of the fly agaric mushroom in our own culture. This is the famous example from Lewis Carroll's ''Alice in Wonderland'', the caterpillar sitting on the mushroom. Alice bites a little piece of this to get larger / smaller. So there is some evidence that Lewis Carroll himself was aware of some of the properties of eating these mushrooms, and the way in which it altered perception. And so the image of the fly agaric became very common in Victorian literature, especially associated with faeries and little people sitting on mushrooms and toadstools.''</ref>]]
An account of the journeys of [[Philip Johan von Strahlenberg|Philip von Strahlenberg]] to Siberia and his descriptions of the use of the ''mukhomor'' there was published in English in 1736. The drinking of urine of those who had consumed the mushroom was commented on by Anglo-Irish writer [[Oliver Goldsmith]] in his widely read 1762 novel, ''Citizen of the World''.<ref>Letcher, p 122.</ref> The mushroom had been identified as the fly agaric by this time.<ref>Letcher, p 123.</ref> Other authors recorded the distortions of the size of perceived objects while intoxicated by the fungus, including naturalist [[Mordecai Cubitt Cooke]] in his books ''The Seven Sisters of Sleep'' and ''A Plain and Easy Account of British Fungi''.<ref>Letcher, p 125.</ref> This observation is thought to have formed the basis of the effects of eating the mushroom in the 1865 popular story ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]''.<ref name="Letcher, p 126"/> A hallucinogenic "scarlet toadstool" from Lappland is featured as a plot element in [[Charles Kingsley]]'s 1866 novel ''[[Hereward the Wake (novel)|Hereward the Wake]]'' based on the [[Hereward the Wake|medieval figure]] of the same name.<ref>Letcher, p 127.</ref> [[Thomas Pynchon]]'s 1973 novel ''[[Gravity's Rainbow]]'' describes the fungus as a "relative of the poisonous [[Destroying angel|Destroying Angel]]" and presents a detailed description of a character preparing a cookie bake mixture from harvested ''Amanita muscaria''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pynchon, T.|title=Gravity's Rainbow|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York|year=1995|pages=92–93 |isbn=978-0-09-953321-4|title-link=Gravity's Rainbow}}</ref> Fly agaric shamanism is also explored in the 2003 novel ''[[Thursbitch]]'' by [[Alan Garner]].<ref>Letcher, p 129.</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Fungi}}
* [[List of Amanita species|List of ''Amanita'' species]]
*[[Legal status of psychoactive Amanita mushrooms|Legal status of psychoactive ''Amanita'' mushrooms]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin|colwidth=60em}}
* {{cite book |last=Allegro |first=John |authorlink= John Allegro|year=2009|title=The sacred mushroom and the cross |edition=40th anniversary |location=Crestline, CA |publisher=Gnostic Media |isbn=978-0-9825562-7-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Arora |first=David |authorlink=David Arora |year=1986 |title=Mushrooms demystified: a comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi |edition=2nd |location=Berkeley |publisher=Ten Speed Press |isbn=978-0-89815-169-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/mushroomsdemysti00aror_0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Benjamin| first= Denis R. |title=Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas—a handbook for naturalists, mycologists and physicians |publisher=WH Freeman and Company| location=New York |year=1995| isbn=978-0-7167-2600-5}}
* {{cite book |title=Shroom: A Cultural history of the magic mushroom |last=Letcher |first=Andy |year=2006 |publisher=Faber and Faber |location=London |isbn=978-0-571-22770-9}}
* {{cite book | author = Ramsbottom, J. | year = 1953 | title = Mushrooms & Toadstools | publisher = Collins | isbn = 978-1-870630-09-2}}
* {{cite book |title=Hallucinogens and Culture |last=Furst |first=Peter T.|year=1976 | publisher=Chandler & Sharp |location= |isbn=978-0-88316-517-1 |pages=98–106}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
{{Wikispecies|Amanita muscaria}}
* [http://www.amanitaceae.org/ Webpages on ''Amanita species''] by Tulloss and Yang Zhuliang
* [https://www.erowid.org/plants/amanitas/ Amanita on erowid.org]
* [http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/fungi/pimg026.htm Aminita muscaria, Amanita pantherina and others (Group PIM G026)] by [[IPCS INCHEM]]

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{{Amanitas}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Amanita Muscaria}}
[[Category:Amanita|muscaria]]
[[Category:Entheogens]]
[[Category:Fungi of Asia]]
[[Category:Fungi of Europe]]
[[Category:Fungi of North America]]
[[Category:Fungi of South America]]
[[Category:Oneirogens]]
[[Category:Poisonous fungi]]
[[Category:Psychoactive fungi]]
[[Category:Fungi described in 1753]]
[[Category:Fungi naturalized in Australia]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]